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Department of Arts and Sciences 



APRIL, 1917 



FOOD PREPAREDNESS 



BUFFALO 



Published January, April, July and September of Each Year 



VOL. V. No. 2 



ENTERED AS SECOND-CLASS MATTER. MAY 2, 1016. AT THE POST OFFICE 
AT BUFFALO. NEW YORK. UNDER THE ACT OF AUGUST 24. igi2 



^^onograt^h 



CONTENTS 

The food problem as a vital part of preparedness .... 3 

Modem theories of diet 6 

Classification of foods: Protein foods 7 

Carbohydrates 7 

Fats 8 

Importance of water in diet 8 

Crude fiber 9 

Foods must be palatable 10 

Nutritive value of foods 10 

Dietary fads — Quacks and alarmists 11 

Substitution: Protein substitution 13 

Cheaper cuts of meat 14 

Partial substitution of meat 15 

Complete meat substitution 17 

Carbohydrate substitutions 18 

;^- Fat substitutes 23 

Food sanitation 24 

Food tables 25 



iS\}t Intti^rsttg at 
SuffalD Sulbtttt 



Published by the Department of Arts and Sciences 



FOOD PREPAREDNESS 



By ALBERT pVsY, Ph. D. 



NIAGARA SQUARE 
BUFFALO, NEW YORK 



Copyright. 1017. by the I niversity of Buffalo 






Introduction 

TWV. ])ast few months have more and 
more impressed upon Americans the 
need of ])reparedness in every department 
of life. Perhaps some of the alarm created 
is unnecessary ; but with regard to the pro- 
duction, conservation, and prudent use of 
food, our concern should be timely. In 
presenting the bulletin upon "Food Pre- 
paredness" the University of Buffalo feels 
sure that it can render the people of this 
vicinity valuable advice and assistance. 
The paper has been prepared by Albert P. 
Sy, Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry, who 
has given the subject of food and diet 
especial attention for many 3'ears. The 
series of bulletins of which this forms one 
issue will be practical in character and 
popular in style, devoid of the technicali- 
ties wliich so often render scientific infor- 
mation forbidding and useless. We hope 
for the widest possible distribution of 
'. these tracts of the times, which may be 
had for the asking from the Secretary of 
the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, at Town- 
send Hall. 

Committee on Publications. 

v' 

©CI.A46903:3 

m 29 1917 



Food Preparedness 

An adeqiiaU' food su{)ply and a careful study of diets arc the 
basis of national well-being. Education, medical attention, econ- 
omics and recreation are of considerable importance but each 
and all depend upon jjroper nourishment of the physical body. 

Until recent years little or no attention has been paid by 
most people to matters of food and diet; the first serious agita- 
tion in this country does not date beyond the memory of those 
who read this. I refer to the time when the question of a Pure 
Food Law began to be seriously considered by the people and 
their representatives in Congress. After several years of fight- 
ing against the unscrupulous and greedy food interests, our pres- 
ent Food and Drugs Act became a law, in June, 1906. 

Since that year more progi-ess has been made in the study of 
foods and diets than in all the time preceding it. The Bureau of 
Chemistry of the United States Department of Agriculture with 
its branch laboratories throughout the country has made it un- 
profitable to adulterate and misbrand food products. The pub- 
lic hardly appreciates the great service rendered by this branch 
of government inspection. It should be said, however, to the 
credit of the large majority of food manufacturers and dealers 
that they are jealous of their reputation to supply the public 
with honest and correctly branded foods. The public knows 
what to expect of foods bearing certain labels — they buy these 
foods with confidence in their purity. Several factors were in- 
strumental in calling the public's attention to a serious study of 

foods : 

First, the {•(>ntr()\ crsy j)re(cding tlie enactment of tlic 
Pure Food Law. 

'Second, the adulterations discovered and published as a 
residt of enforcing the law. 

Third, the rise in prices, i)artially a result of the cru- 
sade for better foods. 

3 



Not until there oecurred an appreciable rise in prices did the 
majority of our people begin to paj' serious attention to foods. 
As long as the supply seemed abundant and prices reasonable, 
very few people paid any attention to matters of diet. That the 
time is at hjyid for most serious and earnest study of our food 
problems is a statement which surely does not admit of debate. 
If, under ordinary circumstances, such a study involves a variety 
of factors which make the problem complicated, what is to be 
said about the present most extraordinary conditions.^ And 
what about conditions of the immediate future.^ A few j'ears 
ago the person who was not writing or talking about "efficiency" 
was not up-to-date. Efficiency found its waj' into every con- 
ceivable nook and corner of our educational^ professional, indus- 
trial and agricultural life. 

But lately another word has been coined — "preparedness". 
It is not an exaggeration to say that with characteristic American 
enthusiasm we promptly pi-oceeded to lose our heads over this 
new word, and this very fact shows one thing more plainly than 
anything else, namely, our unpreparedness. Even now, after the 
preliminary excitement has partially subsided, the word "pre- 
paredness" to most people means soldiers, guns, cannon, cruisers, 
submarines, air-planes, fortifications and explosives. Those 
whose thoughts on preparedness penetrated a little deeper dis- 
covered that it includes doctors, nurses, hospitals and medical 
supplies. By the time these words are in print, it is hoped every- 
body who is capable of a serious thought will realize that just as 
important and vital as anything else joertaining to preparedness 
is the question of food. 

Feeding and fighting arc two inseparable terms. A minute's 
reflection should suffice to show the utter uselessness of any 
scheme of preparedness that does not include an elaborate study 
of the food problem. The time is at hand when we, each of us. 
must think and act seriously. Preparedness must have a personal 
meaning. There can be no national preparedness without indi- 
vidual preparedness. The first step in patriotism is personal 
preparedness. There can be no preparedness without health, 

4 



and health is impossible without correct personal habits and 
adequate food. National preparedness resolves itself, therefore, 
into correct living which in turn is based upon proper nourish- 
ment, not only for today but for tomorrow. At ordinary times 
and under ordinary circumstances, questions relating to an ade- 
quate diet involve no great complications, but circumstances are 
most unusual ; the supply of food seems limited, something which 
we as a wasteful nation never before believed possible. 

The one factor which has helped more than any other to 
bring us to our senses about our food is its cost. "Money talks", 
and food prices are fairly shrieking at us at ever}' turn, a state 
which has a serious meaning to everybody alike. The easiest 
way to interest most people in any kind of a problem is to force 
their attention to the question of cost. 

But, let us come back to preparedness. I can serve my coun- 
try best by being prepared personally and by helping others to a 
similar condition. The person with all kinds of advice and 
criticisms who is not personally prepared nor doing anything to 
help others presents an argument without force. 

The importance of food to personal preparedness is not de- 
batable; it is an axiom. Teachers, preachers, doctors and otliers 
who come in contact with the public should study foods and 
diets ; physicians particularly can be of great 

service. There is great need of instruction in 
Personal 

T^ 1 food values, dietetics and personal hvgiene. Prices 

Preparedness '■ "^ . 

tell their own story and are educating the pub- 
lic in matters of food and diet, and the physician can add scien- 
tific argument to that of prices. Teachers of all grades, from 
kindergarten to university, should be required to study foods. 
An outline for study, including a list of books and other literature 
of the subject, should be provided. There are parents who are 
doing themselves an injustice and who are neglecting a principal 
duty of parenthood by their indift'erence toward their own and 
their cliildren's food problems. 

5 



Many people arc unprepared because of circumstances over 
wliich thej' have no control. But many more arc unprepared 
mainly because of indifference and preventable ignorance. I use 
the term "preventable ignorance" because anyone really in earnest 
has little difficulty in becoming well informed on matters of food 
and diet by making use of our modern library facilities, attend- 
ing lectures and by reading journals and magazines. A word of 
caution is necessary at this point. Much that is said or written 
is misleading or imtrue. Our daily newspapers often contain 
much misinformation. But it should be remembered that our 
newspapers are not scientific journals where accuracy counts 
most ; they are rather the medium for the exchange of ideas 
where people express their opinions. 

Let us now consider briefly some of the elements that make 
for personal preparedness. 

First, one should know something about modern theories of 

diet. Many excellent books exist on this and related subjects, 

and can be found in almost any modern library. Particularly 

, , , good is A. Brvce's Modern T h e o r y of Diet 

Modern " , , „ ■ , _^. . j, t. ' ,. 

, . „ and his smaller work on Dietetics. Bv spendmg 

theories ot , . „ , i , . 

,. as much time on one oi these books as is re- 
diet 111 1 <<i 11 " 

quired to read an ordinary novel or best seller . 

one would get much valuable information — information which 
every well informed person should have, and which has not only 
an educational but also a monetary value. 

The nutritive requirements of the body must be known before 
the nutritive values of different foods can have a real meaning. 
But first of all, a knowledge of the chemistry of foods is neces- 
sary. I will not attempt to define the term "food" — one who 
knows anything at all about foods knows what meaning is to be 
conveyed by this term. We all know that it is the food we eat 
which makes us grow and gives us energy or ability to sustain our 
bodily functions and do work. 

*See also: Fisher: P/iysio/ogy of ^/ifnentmion. 
Stiles: Nuttitional FAyiio/ojr\. 



Scientists arc practically agreed on classifying foods as fol- 
lows :* 

Firsi: Protein foods. These have as their j>rincipal chem- 
ical constituent the element nitrogen in such a form as to be 
readily assimilated and used by the body. These protein foods 
p . arc absolutely essential for the building up and 

,. J repairing of our bodv. Without them there 

roods ' 

would be no dcveloj^mcnt and the animal 

would soon perish. These foods are sometimes called the 
nitrogenous foods. As cxamj^lcs of this class of food stuffs we 
have the white of an egg cchicJi is very nearly pure protein, con- 
iaininrj about 86% of icater. Other jiroteins are the lean part of 
all meats and fisli. the gluten in wheat (other grains also contain 
pi-oteins), the casein in milk and cheese. Many other foods con- 
tain proteins. Some of the protein foods are cheese, 26% ; pea- 
nuts 26%; beans 23%; meats 19%; fish 17%; eggs 15%; 
what 12% ; oats 12% ; corn 10% ; bread 9% ; rice 8%. A brief 
study of these percentages will indicate how substitution might 
be made. Cheese, beans or even bread might at times be used 
partl}^ or wholly in place of meat. 

Second: Another important class of foods consists largely 
or entirely of what chemists call carhoJiydrates. The various 
sugars and starches arc representatives of this class. Pure car- 

„ , , bohvdrates such as the sugars and starches do 

Larbony- ■ "i , /• 

, not contain nitrogen and can thereiore not 

be substituted for proteins. They are called 

the heat- and energy-producing foods. The important foods 

of this class and their percentage of sugar or starch are: Cane 

and beet sugar over 99%; hard candies 96%; honey 81%; 

jelly 78%; raisins 7G% ; rice 76%; wheat 74%; corn 73%; 

oats 70%; molasses 68%; beans 60%; bread 53%; bananas 

22% ; grapes 19% ; potatoes 18% ; apples 11'%. 

Third: The third imi)ortant class of foods is known as fats. 
Lard, olive and peanut oils arc pure fats; they contain no nitro- 
gen and will not do the work of protein foods. The function of 

*Food charts, in colors, publislicd b\- U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

7 



J, tlu' fats in metabolism is similar to that of the 

carbohydrates, namely to supply lieat and 
energy. The fatty foods with a Iiigh percentage of 
fat arc as follows: Lard, olive and peanut oils 100%; 
butter 83%; bacon (57%; walnuts (53%; peanuts 39%;" 
cheese 31%; cream 19%; meat 18%; eggs 11%. These three 
classes of food principles alone are not sufficient to produce 
growth and energy in the human body ; a small amount of a 
number of inorganic substances called "salts" is necessary. 
These sails are sometimes referred to as "viineral matter". The 
chemist often uses the term "ash" and has I'cfercnce to the resi- 
due after burning a food. Foods naturally contain the necessary 
amount of mineral matter or salts. The addition of common 
table salt to our foods is not necessary unless it makes them more 
palatable. 

Water, of course, is necessary in our diet and it plays a much 
more important part than is generally supposed or imderstood. 
Most foods contain water, and although some people seem to get 

™, along with practically no water other than 

Water . '^ . / . , " ,. , ^ i 

is contained in the solid toocis they eat, 

most of us add water to our diet cither as water or 
beverages tliat are largely water, such as tea, coffee, 
milk or cocoa. The percentage of water is usually high in vege- 
table foods. Celery contains 95% water; milk 87%; oysters 
86% ; apples 85% ; fish 80% ; potatoes 78% ; eggs 74% ; meat 
62% ; bread 35% ; cheese 34% ; honey 18% ; butter 13% ; lard, 
olive oil, peanut oil, and sugar contain no water. One often 
hears the statement that peojile do not drink enough water. This 
is no doubt true. I cannot let the o))i)ortunity pass without call- 
ing attention to the old but erroneous notion that water should 
be drunk between meals, not during meals. This idea that 

_. . , . water at meal time interferes with the digestive 

Urinking „ . , 

. , process is still quite prevalent, even among pliy- 

, sicians. Newspaper and magazine food "ex- 

perts" almost invariably tell us not to drink with 
meals. Let it be stated most emphatically that drinking water 



with our meals is not a liarmful or undesirable practice, but is 
a decidedly beneficial one. This has been proved repeatedly by 
rigid scientific experiments. It is now known that water, and 
fluids generally, stimulate the secretion and flow of gastric juice; 
water also materially aids and hastens the process<'s of diges- 
tion and assimilati(m. It is ))hysiologically correct to start a 
meal by drinking water or eating soup. It has been ])roved that 
a cocktail or other high alcoholic drink at the beginning of a 
meal interferes with digestion. 

Nearly all foods lontain more or less indigestible matter 
which is classed under the term "crude fiber". Although it is 
indigestible and does not take any part in metabolic processes 
P , directly. it serves an important purpose. 

ni namely to increase intestinal peristalsis which 

in turn aids in the absorption of food and 
elimination of waste matter. Vegetables, fruits and grains 
contain considerable crude fiber, and, partly for this reason, 
these foods are valuable and should be included in our daily diet 
list. Our objection to refined foods is that frequently they con- 
tain no crude fiber. 

Until recently the com))arison of foods has been studied with 
reference to their content of protein, carbohydrate, fat, mineral 
matter, water and crude fiber. During the last few years, how- 
ever, it has been discovered that normal metabolism can be main- 
tained only when, in addition to the above mentioned constitu- 
ents, our foods contain a certain amount of substances called 
"vitamines".* The exact chemical nature of vitamines is still un- 
known, but there is no doubt that a diet which is deficient in 
these substances produces serious nutritional disturbances. Dis- 
eases such as beri-beri and pellagra are called "deficiency dis- 
eases", and it is believed are due to the lack of vitamines in the 
diet. A fairlj^ well mixed diet, particularly one which includes 
some raw foods and is not largely made up of refined foods, con- 
tains enough vitamines for maintaining normal metabolism. 

*A. Seidell, Reprint 325, Public Health Reports, Published by the United 
States Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. 



r» 1 ^ i_-T^ jtn addition to havin<>- the correct chemical 

Falatabihty 
r composition, foods must be palatable; they must 

j^gjjjg look and taste rii>ht. Unpalatability interferes 

seriously with digestion. Not until our atten- 
tion is called to it do we notice that the flavor of food receives 
a very considerable amount of consideratiim. This phase of our 
diet has been carefully stiulied by physiological chemists and 
others.* 

One of the chief aims of the instruction in cooking, and 
preparation of foods, in our modern domestic science courses is 
to make our meals as appetizing and palatable as possible. And 
just now while we are facing serious food problems, such as a 
restricted choice, our cooks will find it well worth while to de- 
vise methods for making available foods palatable. 

Closely related to their chemical composition is the nutritive 

value of foods. This is commonly known as "food value" and 

for want of a better method is expressed in terms of heat 

TV, . . calories. The expression for example. "1200 

INutntive \,, , , p , 

1 calories per pound means that the food in 

values 

question, when one pound of it is burned. 

yields 1200 calories of heat. The processes of metabol- 
ism in the body resemble burning, and a pound of such food 
yields nearly 1200 calories of heat. 

In calculating food values the principal food materials. — 
protein, carbohydrates and fats — only are considered ; the min- 
eral matter and water do not enter into the metabolic processes 
to produce heat or energy. 

Bread furnishes 1180 calories per pound and three pounds 
would supply approximately the food value necessary for one 
day. Beef-steak is slightly less nutritive, being rated at 1090 
calories per pound. Sugar produces 1810 calories per pound 
and a little less than 2 pounds contains the energy for a day's 
work. Most people will be surprised to learn that one and 
one-third pounds of peanuts (shelled) at 2485 calories per 

*H. T. I'inck, Food iind F!a-vor, Century Co. 

10 



pound contain the equivalent of a day's food. Milk ))roduees 
only 315 calories per pound, while olive oil and lard are each 
rated at 1080 per pound. The table at the end of this pamphlet 
shows calories per jiound of our common food materials. It will 
be noted that fruits and vegetables and other foods with a high 
percentage of water have a low calorific or food value, while 
those rich in fat have the highest values. 

An average man doing ordinary work requires daily enough 
food to produce from ;jOOO to ;^500 colorics of heat. Laborers 
doing hard work require ccmsiderably more, while peo])le doing but 
light muscular work can get along with 2000 calories. These heat 
calories should be produced by foods constituting a mixed diet; 
that is, containing some of each of the food principles described. 
Enough of this mixed diet .should be eaten to maintain a nearly 
constant body weight in the case of adults ; a considerable gain 
or loss in body weight can in most cases be attributed to an ex- 
cessive or deficient diet. One should eat only palatahle food and 
only rchen liiingry. We should eat. not because we feel it a duty 
or necessity — we should enjoy our food; wc should eat for the 
pleasure it gives us. Food should be kept in the mouth until all 
taste or flavor has been chewed out of it. The flavor of food 
should be our guide as to ■ichat to eat; hunger should c<mtrol June 

_,, - much and when to eat; and common sense and 

-T Ictcncr- 

knowledge of the foods should tell us hotv 

to eat. F 1 c t c h c r ' s idea is worth noting*: 
"I can not advise you appropriately what to eat, when to eat, nor 
how much to eat ; neither can anyone else. Trust to Nature ab- 
solutely, and accept her guidance. If she calls for pie, eat pie. 
If she calls for it at midnight, eat it then, but eat it right." 

Volumes could be written on dietary fads; the books on vege- 
tarianism alone would fill a small library. A vegetarian is a per- 
son whose protein requirement is derived from vegetable in- 
_. stead of animal foods. Another fad is to eat only 

„ , ■' raw foods, on the theory that food should be 

eaten the way nature made it. Then there is the 

* Fletcher: Fltlcherism, What ii i<, p. 35. 

11 



mono-foodist who eats but one kind of food at a meal, and the 
one-mealer who tries to make one meal a day suffice. Many have 
tried the no-breakfast plan; others live largely on milk and milk 
products, and still others make their menu largely of nuts. When 
too much attention is paid to a single food a fad results. It is 
no doubt true that here and there some individual has been 
greatly benefitted by following a fad. Since there are still many 
unknown or incompletely understood factors in diet and metal)ol- 
ism, the greatest safety or wisdom lies in a varied diet. 

While on this subject of fads let us mention the ever-present 
food quack. The country is flooded with the literature and ad- 
vertisements of these self-styled food exj^erts, who almost with- 
^ , out exception show a miserable lack of knowledge 

, of even the elementary principles of physiology. 

, . digestion, and the chemical effect of foods ; their 

alarmists 

theories about disease are often ridiculous. It is 

difficult to understand why there are still so many magazines and 
newspapers whose advertising columns are open to any food 
quack who can pay for space. Now and then a food faker is 
barred from the use of the United States mails. 

Almost as bad as the quack is the alarmist, ever ready to act 
as the guardian of the people's stomachs and health. He gets an 
idea that a certain food is bad, or a color or preservative injuri- 
ous, and rushes into print to give the alarm. His arguments are 
neither correct nor reasonable. He has us poisoned daily by pre- 
servatives and colors; our digestion ruined by fats or sugar; our 
intestines glued together by glucose. We are eating too much, 
or America is starving; and then there is always the subject of 
adulteration to fall back on. 

It is hardly necessary to sound an alarm against the quacks 
and alarmists. We are fast learning how to discount what we 
hear and see about foods. 



12 



Substitution 

There is an unpleasant sound to tlie word substitution. When 
used in connection witli foods it brings to our minds the idea of 
an ethical or commercial fraud. But as a matter of fact ther.e is 
very little illegal substitution in foods. Within the last few 
years the word substitution has assumed a somewhat different 
meaning. Various conditions have made it desirable, even nec- 
essary, to study and practice the substitution of one food for an- 
other. We can do this the more intelligently, the bettet we are 
acquainted with the composition and function of different foods. 
Of course the principal reason for substitution is the fact that 
on account of great demand, under-production or speculation, the 
increasing prices of certain foods tend to make their use pro- 
hibitive. In order to avoid deceiving ourselves in this matter of 
food substitution the following general principles should be kept, 
in mind: First, the substituted food should have nearly the same 
food value; second, it should be as palatable; and third, it should 
be cheaper, or at least not more expensive than the food the 
place of which it takes. 

Let us now consider specifically some practical substitutions. 

The most important foods are those rich in proteins ; we must eat 

a certain amount of them, and meat comes first in the minds of 

p . most people when a protein or nitrogenous food is 

, . mentioned. For various reasons meat prices have 

substitu- . , , -, - - 

so risen that people are compelled to studv 
tions , .,.,.. » , . . mi' 

economy and possibilities oi substitutions. ihe 

present meat situati(m is no doubt a blessing in disguise, because 
it is sure to bring about a much needed nutritional reform; until 
recent years we as a nation, have eaten too much meat. Present 
and future prices will make for a lower protein diet and better 
health, as well as economy, and will give us a valuable lesson in 
substitution. Although vegetarians seem to have demonstrated 
that some people can get along without meat, I have no inten- 
tion of urging an entirely meatless diet. Since we have so long 
been a meat-eating nation, it would seem unwise to make such 

13 



a radical iliango. IJut it docs st'cm dcsirablf to use less meat, 
substituting foods with a high protein percentage. The most 
practical method for reducing meat consumption is for the cook 
to make a study of recipes. (1). M'here cheaj^er cuts of meat are 
used; (-). where a little meat is used for producing flavor; (8). 
which call for no meat at all. 

The first step toward a lower meat bill is by the use of 

cheaper cuts. Extensive research by government experts shows 

that the chca])er cuts of meat contain practically the same nour- 

„, ishment as the more expensive ones. The latter 

Cheaper 

are usually more tender and contain more fiavormg 

,. substances, teehniealh' called "extraetiv-es". How- 

ot meat . • 

ever, clever housewives — fortunately there are a 

great many of them — by skillful preparation, flavoring and cook- 
ing can make the cheaper cuts most palatable and appetizing. 
The toughness of some of the cheaper cuts can be overcome by 
pounding, antl by previously sprinkling a little flour over the 
meat the juices and fla\'ors are more readily retained. 

The meat chopper can also be used to advantage in making 
the cheaper cuts more appetizing. These cheaj^er cuts can best 
be prepared in a tireless cooker. The following recipes which 
are taken from a government bulletin shmv how to use the 
cheaper meats. 

CASSEROLE ROAST — (A casserole may be improvised by 
using a heavy earthenware dish covered with a plate.) Brown 
a round or rump of beef in fat from a slice of fried ])ork. Place 
in casserole with chopped carrot, turnip, cmion. celery, etc., 
around it. Add two cupfuLs of water or stock, cover and cook 
in hot oven three hours, basting occasionally. 

BRAISED BEEF OR POT ROAST— Brown the meat on 
all surfaces, place in closely covered kettle or other receptacle 
witli small quantity of water and flavoring vegetables, such as 
onion, carrot, etc.. and cook until tender. Browning the meat 
lieljjs to keep in the juices. The slow cooking in water and 
steam inakci tor t( iKJcrness. 

14 



SAVORY 15EF-1'" — Cut a i)ound of top round of beef into 
two-inch pieces and sprinkle with flour; fry a small piece of salt 
pork until light brown ; add beef and fry for about 35 minutes, 
stirring occasionally. Co\er with water and simmer about two 
hours (fireless cooker may be used) ; season with salt and pepper 
or paprika. Serve with a sauce made as follows : Cook in water 
20 minutes a cup of tomatoes, part of a stalk of celery, one-half 
onion, three whole cloves, three pepper-corns and one blade of 
mace or a very little nutmeg. Rub through a sieve, add some of 
the gravy from the meat, thicken with flour moistened with cold 
water, and season with salt and paprika. Noodles, boiled rice, 
hominy, or chopped potatoes, carrots and green peppers or other 
vegetables in season, may be served in the same dish. 

An important point which is often overlooked in the use of 

any kind of meat is waste of trimmings and left-overs. The 

former should be saved for the fat they ccmtain, while the left- 

rr, . . overs can be used in many w'avs. Small ijieces of 

1 nmmings 

, dinerent kinds of meat often make a good combina- 

1 r. tion in the same dish. Veal, chicken and pork can 

lett-overs 

be used for cro(]uettes : all kinds of meat may be 

put in hash. 

(2) The next step in meat economy is to use it for flavoring- 
other foods which contain the necessary amount of protein. The 
modern cook knows many ways of doing this. She makes stews, 
-p . , hashes, croquettes and casserole dishes. Then 

, , . there are recipes where meat is used with bread 

substitution ,..,., 

„ crumbs, rice, meat pies; where it is used with 

oi meat ^ , , , , . . . , 

jiastry , dumplings and otiier combinations with 

starch food such as spaghetti or macaroni, and Anally the almost 

numberless combinations of meat with vegetables. 

The following arc examples of the use of meat for flavoring 

2)urposes : 

STEW WITH DL'.MPLINGwS- Make stew from small 
pieces of meat and vegetables, cooking it on stove or in flreless 
cooker. Serve with dumplings made as follows: For a stew- 
using one j)onnd of meat mix a little more than one-third cup 

15 



Hour with one teaspoonfiil of baking powdtr and a pincli of salt, 
work in a rounding teaspoonful of butter and mix with enough 
milk to form a medium stiff dough. Cut into small pieces and 
cook in a buttered steamer over a kettle of boiling water or re- 
move enough gravy from the stew to expose the meat and vege- 
tables and jilaee the pieces of dough on these solid materials to 
cook. 

MEAT PIE — Meat pies are made most satisfactorily by first 
cooking the meat and vegetables as for a stew. Line a pan, 
earthenware dish, or casserole with biscuit dough rolled fairly 
thin, put in the meat, vegetables and gravy, cover with dough and 
bake in a hot oven. 

MEAT TURNOVERS— Place any chopped cooked meat 
available on circles of biscuit dough about the size of a saucer. 
Fold the dough over the meat, crimp the edges and bake in a 
hot oven. Vegetables maj^ be combined with the meat filling as 
desired and the whole may be served with gravy. 

VEAL OR BEEF BIRDS— Cut very thin meat into roughly 
rectangular pieces of a sufficient size for individual servings. 
Place on each a stuffing of bread crumbs, seasoned with chopped 
onions and other flavoring vegetables and herbs. Fold or roll up 
the meat and skewer in place with tooth picks. Brown the rolls 
in fat, remove and make gravy from the fat. flour and stock if 
available. Place the rolls in the gravy and cook slowly until 
tender in a covered baking dish, a steamer, or a fireless cooker. 

BEAN CRUST MEAT PIE— Take one cupful boiled bean 
pulp; 1/2 teaspoonful salt; 1 teaspoonful baking powder; 1 egg, 
beaten; 2 tablespoonfuls melted fat; flour to make a soft dough. 
Mix, and roll to about y<] inch in thickness on well-floured board. 
Cut strips of suitable size, when folded, for individual pies. Fill 
the pies with chopped, cooked meat or vegetables. Fold crust 
over, press edges together and bake in moderate oven until well 
browned. If vegetables are used instead of meat, this might be 
called "bean crust vegetable pie'" and would tlien belong with 
meatless dishes. 

16 



BEAN-HAM LOAF— Take 2 cupfuls cooked lentils (or 
beans), 2 cupfuls minced cooked ham. 1 minced onion, 1 egg, 
beaten; 1/2 cupful bread crumbs, ^/^ cupful milk. 2 tablespoonfuls 
butter. Mix and shape into a loaf. Bake 'iO minutes in moder- 
ate oven. 

(3) The third and final step in saving meat is of course 
by the use of recipes for meatless dishes. 

BOSTON ROAST — A good example of such a recipe is the 

so-called Boston roast, the cost of which is cmly about one-tenth 

of that of an equivalent amount of nourishment in the form of 

^ , roast beef. Take one pound of beans, cook and 

Complete ' 

put them through a meat grinder; add one-half 
meat ^ " ^ 

, . . pound of grated cheese and enough bread crumbs 

substitution , V „. » 

to make the mixture stifi enough to form into a 

roll. Place in buttered baking pan and bake in moderate oven. 
Baste with one-half cup of hot water in which a tablespoonful of 
butter has been melted. The roast may be flavored by the addi- 
tion of finely chopped onions, and can be served with tomato 
sauce if desired. 

BEAN LOAF— Take the following: 1 pint of cold baked 
beans, 1 egg beaten, 1 cupful bread crumbs, 1 tablespoonful 
finely minced onion, 2 tablespoonfuls tomato catsuj) ; salt and 
pepper. Mix these ingredients thoroughly and shape into a loaf. 
Bake for 25 minutes. Serve with strips of broiled bacon on top. 

PEANUT LOAF— Take 1 cupful mashed potatoes, 1 cupful 
fine groinid peanuts, 1 cupful milk. 2 eggs beaten, seasoning. 
Mix ingredients and shape into a loaf ; bake in moderate oven 
for 20 minutes. 

These two recipes* will serve as illustrations of meat substi- 
tutions. Many others may be found in recent literature on cook- 
ing.** The table on the last page shows which food-stuffs have a 
high percentage of })rotein and are therefore suitable as meat 

*The Cornell Reading Courses, June i, 1915, Page 190. 
**Mrs. Rorcr: I't^etdblc Cookery imd Mem Suhstiiu.e.'. 

17 



substitutes. Of course tlie cost of these substitutes uiust be con- 
sidered. I'.ggs at wint(>r j)rices or expensive cheese would ed'eet 
no eeonom}'. 

The time is not far distant when vegetable proteins not now 

in use as human food will be common. At ]) resent they are 

utilized in feeding stuff mixtures for cattle and horses and hogs. 

^j , , I refer to the bv-products of the vegetable oil in- 

Veffetable ' 

. dustries. In the manufacture of oils from corn. 
protein i i. i , , 

7 , peanuts, cottonseed, iinseed and cocoanut tliere is 

by-products ' ,/ ,,,,.,. . ,, . , . 

lett a press-eake whieli is especially rieli in ])ro- 

tein. The chief reason why these protein residues have not been 
seriously considered for human consumjition is their flavor, and 
the fact that other and more palatable proteins are easily obtain- 
able. But the ingenuity of the food-chemist and the cook, aided 
by scarcity of meats and other ])rotein foods, will probably make 
some of these by-products available for our dietary. 

Carbohydrate Substitutions 

The principal carbohydrate foods are flour and bread, the 
different cereals and breakfast foods, rice and sugar. Until 
quite recently, none of these food-stuffs had prices that called 
for a study of substitutions. But just now prices are advanced 
almost daily, especially on flour and sugar. Here again we liave 
a blessing in disguise, for it is hoped that the public can be con- 
vinced of a number of misuses and abuses of these foods. 

On account of a desire to have otir bread as white as pos- 
sible and also beeavise of igiiorance in the matter of nutritive 
values, we discard about one-third of the wheat in milling. And 
™^, , this discarded portion includes some of the most 

, valuable parts of the wheat, partieulai'ly mineral 

, matter, crude fiber, and no doubt some vitamines. 

products 

The fact that the millers were compelled to 

"bleach" flour with chemicals shows that the public demanded a 

flour as white as it was possible to make it. For years, food 

chemists and dietitians have urged a more complete use of wheat 

18 



for making flour. Wlioh- wheat flour produces a more nutritive 
bread, a more natural and complete food ; at the same time much 
more flour is produced from the same amount of wheat. This 
lesson has been thoroughly learned by European nations during 
the last year, and now it is our turn. Let us hope the millers 
will soon receive government instruction as to the amount of 
flour that will be expected from a bushel of wheat. The substi- 
tution of whole wheat flour for white or "patent" will be a most 
important step toward health and economy. While waiting for 
whole wheat flour to become more popular and better appre- 
ciated, we are making extensive use of whole wheat products 
in the form of cereal breakfast foods. Such foods must be 
classed as the very best because they include all the ingredients 
put into the wheat-berry by nature; they contain all the mineral 
matter which plays an important ))art in metabolism ; they con- 
tain what is lacking in many other breakfast foods, namely, 
crude fiber — which is an aid to intestinal activity and prevents 
constipation ; and finally they are never bleached or otherwise 
chemically treated. By carefully observing the labels on break- 
fast foods it is a simple matter to pick out whole wheat products. 

The next step in flour substitution is the use of a mixture of 
wheat and corn flour. Corn products will probably always be 
cheaper than wheat products, and these two are of about the 
^ f, same nutritive value. The substitution is there- 

fore physiologically permissible and economically 
desirable. Corn-flour, and wheat- and corn-flour mixtures are not 
generally sold as yet, but if present wheat prices continue corn 
flour will soon become a necessity. Cornmeal and other corn 
products are already in use ; they are the cheapest and best 
wheat substitutes we have at present. Nothing need be said 
here about recipes for using cornmeal since tliey may be found 
in any cookbook. 

As soon as potatoes reach their normal price again, they can 
be used as a substitute for bread or other wheat products. The 
Bureau of Chemistry at Washington has published the following 

19 



p recipe developed by Miss H. L. Wessling. It pro- 

duces a tasty and nourishing bread from potatoes. 
the quantities of material used making four one-pound loaves. 

POTATO BREAD — Boil, peel and mash while hot, enough 
potatoes to make five cups; add two cakes compressed yeast 
rubbed smootli in four tablespoons of water. Now add three 
level tablespo(ms of sugar, half as much salt, and a scant cup t)f 
Hour. Use a half-pint cup. Mix thoroughly by hand. Do not 
add more water. Let rise until quite light, about two hours. 
Now add two pounds of flour, knead thoroughly to a very stiff 
dough. Do not add more water. Let it rise until it is three 
times its former size, from one to two hours. Now take a little of 
this dough and press it into the bottom of a straight sided water 
glass and mark a spot on the glass twice tlie height of the dough. 
Divide the rest of the dough into four loaves and put into warm 
greased pans. Set the water glass next to pans and let all rise. 
When the dough in the glass has doubled in volume, put the 
loaves into oven and bake for 15 minutes. 

POTATO BISCUITS— Take 1 cupful mashed potatoes, 
freshly cooked; 1 cupful flour; 4 teaspoonfvds baking powder; 
1/2 teaspoonful salt; 1 tablespoonful butter; 1 tablespoonful 
lard; V^ cupful milk. Sift the dry ingredients and add them to 
the potatoes, mixing with a knife. Now work in the butter and 
lard and enough milk to make a soft dough. Place dough on 
floured board and roll lightly to 1/^ inch thickness. Cut out with 
biscuit cutter, place in well greased pan and bake in hot oven for 
15 minutes. 

Other excellent potato recipes can be found in The Cornell 
Reading Courses, Feb. 1, 1915. 

.^ , , Another source of carbohydrates is in some 

Larbony- 
, . vegetables, especially beans, peas and lentils. 

, 1 These were mentioned under substitutes for meat 

vegetables 

because of their high protein content, and while 

primarily used for their protein, they supply at the same time 

considerable carbohydrate food. 

20 



A substance which deserves particular mention in this con- 
nection is glucose. It has been and will be used as a substitute 
for sugar. Not many years ago it would have been useless to 
p^ tell people that glucose should be classed as a food. 

Over-zealous food reformers had convinced the 
public that glucose was to be shunned like poison. But time has 
changed this ; unbiased investigations have proven that glucose 
as now manufactured is a wholesome and pure food material. 
It is made from cornstarch by a simple chemical process, and 
consists mainly of the simple sugar dextrose (sometimes also 
called glucose) and a smaller amount of dextrin and maltose. 
These ingredients are all easily digested, in fact the dextrose is 
already in a form ready for absorption. Very few j^eople know 
glucose in its original condition — a water-white heav}' sirup; but 
we buy it in various slightly modified forms for table use and for 
baking, candy making and other purposes. Enormous quantities 
of it are used by the bakers for sweetening purposes as a substi- 
tute for sugar; almost all candies, low and high priced, are made 
largely from glucose; brewers use it, spirit vinegar is made from 
it. Its principal use, however, is a sweetener in place of the 
more expensive sugar. It has not replaced sugar to any consid- 
erable extent in the household cookery, but the prediction is here 
ventured that the housewife will not be long in adopting glucose 
for home cooking. 

As in the case of wheat flour, cane and beet sugars might be 

classed among the over-refined foods. We demand a certain 

color or appearance in our food-stuflfs, in utter disregard of 

„ composition or what must be done to such foods. 

. Ketchup must be red, butter must be yellow and 

„ „ J sugar must be snow white ; to produce this effect 

oi loods , - .,1.1 ,.1 11 .1 

m the latter it had to be over-renned, all the 

natural mineral substances removed from it, and finally "bluing" 

added to it to disguise the last traces of yellowness. But we are 

learning the fallacy of such practices. By substituting a less 

refined sugar we not only get more sugar but a more wholesome 

article. This obviously is economy. Tlif word "sugar" is here 

21 



used to iticliulo botli cane and beel siii>ar. The only difference of 

wliieli I am aware between those two is the wliolesale price, 

.-, , whicli is a few cents lower for the beet suijar: the 

Lane and '^ 

, retailers charge the same price for both, and the 

beet sugars 

consumer is absolutely unable to tell the difference 

between them. Cliemically these sugars haAC the same formula, 

and scientific research shows that no differnce can be detected in 

their use. Some housewives and candy makers claim they can 

tell the difference ; these same people are probably also the ones 

who tasted the chlorine in our Buffalo drinking water three 

weeks before the chlorination process started. 

T, .,, As the very latest additions to our carbohv- 

rroso millet c i , * i i , , " 

1 drate foods should be mentioned the starches or 

and 

, flour obtained from proso millet and sorghum. 

sorghum 0^0 

Some of our State experiment stations are con- 
ducting investigations and preliminary announcements tell us 
that these products will surely be available and suitable as car- 
bohydrate foods. 

Now that flour and wheat products are high priced, rice is 
being more seriously considered as an addition to our dietary. 
It is essentially a earbohj^lrate food, similar to wheat and oats 
Tj. except that it contains less protein. Three kinds 

of rice are found in our stores, "unpolished", 
"polished" and "coated". The well informed housewife knows 
that the polished and coated kind belong to the class of over- 
refined and adulterated foods. The impolished kind retains most 
of the original mineral salts and fat and is a more or less com- 
plete food, while the polished kind must be classed as deficient. 
Pigeons fed exclusively on unpolished rice seem well nourished, 
but when fed on polished rice they soon develop a food de- 
ficiency disease, polyneuritis, and die. Only unpolished rice 
should be used for human food. To use any other betrays an 
ignorance in matters of diet. Rice cooking is well described in 
modern cook books. The January 1, 1914, number of the Cor- 
nell Reading Courses contains valuable information about rice 
and recipes for its use. 

22 



Fat Substitutes 

^^'lu•ll thinking of fat foods, butter comes to mind first. We 

are a nation of butter eaters, and it will be a slow process to 

educate us to the use of substitutes. The eliief butter substitute 

-r, on the market now is oleomargarine. Iffnorance 

BuHer ^ ^ 

, . as to its eomjiosition and the propaganda of the 

, . butter interests, aided by laws passed hj legis- 

lators from rural districts, have prevented a more 
universal use of butter substitutes. 

The actual nutritive value as ex})ressed in calories is prac- 
tically the same for all fats and oils. Oils and softer fats are 
somewhat more completely and quickly digested than the harder 
ones. It has been discovered recently that butter contains some 
unidentified substances which make it a more complete food than 
some other fats. Experiments indicate that butter and cod-liver 
oil contain the growth-promoting jsubstanees, while in lard and 
olive oil they are absent. It is therefore suggested that our diet 
should always include some butter or other milk products sudi as 
cream, cheese or milk itself. 

Man}^ people who find a flavor of butter-substitute objection- 
able are using a mixture of part butter and part substitute. Of 
the more palatable substitutes are those containing nut and corn 
products ; a mixture of two parts of nut-margarine and one part 
of butter is surely more palatable than many brands of pure but- 
ter. For cooking purposes other fats have long been used in- 
stead of butter, but the future will see much more substitution. 
According to conditions, uses, and cost, the following come under 
consideration: cottonseed cooking oil, cottonseed oil pi'oducts 
such as Crisco, peanut oil, the cheaper grades of olive oil, corn 
oil. Until recently corn oil has had an objectionable flavor, but 
it can now be had with a most agreeable nutty flavor, somewhat 
like peanut oil. Just at present the cocoanut oil industry is being- 
developed and this finely flavored fat should be a d«>siral)le addi- 
tion to the list. 

23 



An enormous amount of fat is produced in the fish industry, 
but so far it has not been possible to make fish oil palatable. It 
is only a question of time, however, when this problem will be 
solved and then we shall liave another important source of fat 
food. 

As a matter of every day and particularly as a war-time 
economy^ the housewife is carefully saving the fat from trim- 
mings, drippings from roasts, bacon fat ; beef, pork, chicken, 
p, turkey and bacon fats can be mixed ; there is no 

, . . reason for keeping them separate. Such mix- 

drippings , r c 

tures can be used for many culinary purposes, 

such as shortening and frying. 

Sanitation 

Although making rapid progress, we are still quite unpre- 
pared in food sanitation. As. an example I quote the proposed 
Buffalo Sanitary Code which has been discussed and modified for 
nearly a year. Everybody realizes the need of a sanitary code 
for the other fellow. No matter how perfect in chemical com- 
jDOsition or palatable and appetizing a food is, if it has not been 
produced, handled, and prepared in a sanitari/ manner it con- 
stitutes a menace to health. Foods are easily contaminated; 
man J' spoil quickly. Much has been said and written on un- 
sanitary methods in food production and handling; I shall only 
add that the next great step forward will be a rigid enforcement 
of a law requiring health and cleanliness in persons who handle 
foods. 



24 



COMPOSITION AND CALORIES OF FOODS 



Apples . 

Bacon 

Bananas 

Beans, dry 

Bread 

Bread, wliolc wheat 

Bread, corn 

Butter 

Buttermilk 

Candy 

Canned fruit 

Celery 

Cheese . 

Corn, dry . 

Cream 

Eggs . . 

Figs, dry 

Fish, cod. lean 

Fish, mackerel, fa 

Grapes . 

Ham, smoked 

Honev 

Jelly ■ . . 

Lard 

Meat 

Milk . . . 

Milk, skimmed 

Oats (oatmeal) 

Olive Oil . . 

Onions 

O^'sters 

Peanuts 

Peanut oil . 

Pork chops 

Potatoes 

Raisins 

Rice .... 

Strawberries 

Sugar 

Walnuts 

Wheat (whole) 



beef steak 



Water 

S-l..(i 
18.8 
75.8 
12.() 
:{5..'{ 
.-J 8. 4 
.•i8.9 
13.0 
<)1.0 
3.0 
77.2 
94.5 
3.i2 
10.8 
7kO 
73.7 
18.8 
82.() 
73.1- 
77.1. 
10.3 
18.2 
21.0 



(il.J) 
87.0 
90.5 
11.0 



87.G 

8(5.9 

9.2 



52.0 
78,3 
11.6 
12.0 

90.1 



Carbo- 
Proteiii hydrate 



0.4 
9.4 
1.3 
22.5 
9.2 
9.7 
7.9 
1.0 
3.0 



1.1 

l.I 
25.9 
10.0 

2.5 
14.8 

4.3 
15.8 
18.3 

1.3 
16.1 

0.4 



18.6 
3.3 
3.4 

11.8 



1.6 

6.2 

25.8 



16.9 
2.2 

2.6 
8.0 
1.0 



14.2 

22.0 
59.() 
53.1 
49.7 
46.3 



Fat 
0.5 

67.4 
0.6 
1.8 
1,3 
0.9 
4.7 

83.0 
0.5 



0,1 



2.5 
10.6 



IG.Cy 
12.2 



4.8 
96.5 
21.1 

3.4 

2.4 33.7 
73.4 4.3 

4.5 18.5 
10.5 

74.2 0.3 

0.4 

7.1 

19.2 1.6 
38.8 

81.2 

78.3 

100.0 

18.5 

5.0 4.0 

5.1 0.3 
69.2 5.0 

100.0 

9.9 0.3 

3.7 1.2 

24.4 38.6 
100.0 

30,1 

18,4 0,1 

76.1 3.3 

77.0 2.0 
7.1 0.6 

100.0 

16.1 63.4 
73.7 1.7 



Calories 
per lb. 

285 

3090 

445 

1560 

1180 

1110 

1175 

3405 

160 

1745 

405 

80 

1885 

1685 

881 

695 

1435 

300 

620 

435 

1875 

1475 

1415 

4080 

1090 

315 

165 

1670 

4080 

220 

230 

2485 

4080 

1535 

375 

1560 

1620 

175 

1810 

3180 

1625 



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